William L. Tafoya, Ph.D.

Criminal Investigative Analysis is the terminology used by the FBI to describe what is more popularly known as Profiling--psychological or criminal profiling. This investigative technique is now approximately 26 years old. From the mid-1970s, when the use of this approach began being made public, the FBI and indeed the Special Agents who developed this investigative tool have asserted that to make appropriate use of "profiling" three criteria must be met. First, profiling is appropriate only in uniquely violent crimes, originally murder, rape, and arson. Unique was operationally defined as evidence of rage or "over kill" (disproportionate number of stab wounds, for example, well in excess of what would be required to kill the victim, mutilation, dismemberment, and so forth). Second, there must be evidence that the same offender has committed three or more like-crimes. Physical evidence discovered at each crime scene that links the crimes, such as a totem, for example. Uncovering something specific, such as a piece of jewelry belonging to a prior victim, serves as an emblem symbolic of the killer's behavior: "I want you to know it's me." Third, profiling is appropriate only as a measure of last resort, when all other traditional investigative avenues have been exhausted. It is, in fact, this last criterion for which profiling was developed. If standard investigative protocols in serial murder and other cases were successful, there would have been no reason to explore alternative, unconventional methods.

When the FBI initiated the profiling project there were killers, rapists, bombers, and arsonists whose modus operandi defied conventional approaches. Such offenders continue to behave in unorthodox fashion. It is important to note that at the time this research was initiated, organizationally the FBI was also skeptical. The Special Agents who undertook the research did so at great risk to their careers as they were doing so without authorization. Once the research was concluded and the protocols implemented, the FBI gave its blessing to profiling.

From the beginning media accounts about the use of profiling captivated the public's interest. For example, Psychology Today magazine did a feature article in its April 1983 issue about the so-called "Mind Hunters." Profiling had been elevated to cult status by the early 1990s. Movies ("Silence of the Lambs", et al) and television ("Profiler" and notably "The X Files," et al), dazzled viewers and fired the imagination. Today there are an array of web sites devoted to profiling. One of the most balanced is Australian-based; the Crime Library hosted by Wayne Petherick. Publicized criticisms of glamorized, Hollywood depictions of profiling have done little to abate the public's fascination with profiling. Interestingly, the impact on the psyche has been profound. For example, among students, especially those majoring in Criminal Justice, many with which I have spoken indicate that their career goal is to become a FBI Agent Profiler. My guess is that many college and university professors routinely hear the same thing from their students.

Are such goals unrealistic? Is it reasonable for law enforcement authorities to expect profiling to do what ages-old convention has not been able to do? And is it fair to denigrate the efforts of those who, despite the odds against success, sally forth to offer informed opinion as to the behavioral type and characteristics of the offender?

The profiling protocols were originally based on the insights provided by convicted offenders willing to be interviewed. These protocols have never been evaluated statistically, to establish scientific reliability and validiy. Despite the fact that profiling was developed clinically, not empirically, it has legitimate investigative value. An anecdote comes to mind that exemplifies this point.

A retired engineer was called in as a consultant by his former employer when the cause of a problem in the plumbing that was costing the company thousands of dollars in lost revenue from having to shut down operations. The reason had not been discovered despite extensive review by some of the best engineers currently on staff. The engineer walked around the boiler room for about five minutes, periodically tapping the pipes with a hammer. In a short time the engineer heard an atypical sound. He directed the company representative who was accompanying him to have the pipe cut at that precise point, insert a joint that would re-direct the flow of the water therein, and departed.

Shortly thereafter, the company received an invoice from the engineer: Consulting $10,015. The accountant called the engineer to question the invoice. "You were only there 5 minutes," the accountant said, "Why so much?' The retired engineer replied: "$15 for the hammer, $10,000 for knowing where to tap the pipe."

Criticisms over the lack of scientific credibility not withstanding, the use of profiling is a justifiable investigative tool. Experience and instinct remain important elements of criminal investigation. Profiling takes these skills to a different level. What makes no sense to an investigator not trained to look for behavioral clues, something that as a consequence may be dismissed as irrelevant, may in fact, be a critical behavioral clue. Profiling has never promised to be the answer, only one more tool in the effort to solve the crime and identify the offender where all traditional investigative avenues have been exhausted. October 20, 2002

SUGGESTED RESOURCES

Ault, Richard L. and James T. Reese (1980) "A Psychological Assessment of Crime Profiling," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 49: 3 (March): 22 - 25.

Douglas, John E., Ann W. Burgess, and Robert K. Ressler (1992) Crime Classification Manual. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Katz, Abram (2003) "Solid police work seen as key to catching killer," New Haven Register, Wednesday, October 16: A1.
http://www.nhregister.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=5719626&BRD
=1281&PAG=461

Kennedy, Daniel B. (2001) "Ethical Guidelines for Professional Conduct," Academy of Behavioral Profiling.
http://www.profiling.org/abp_conduct.html

Petherick, Wayne (2001) "Criminal Profiling: Fact, Fiction, Fantasy, and Fallacy."
http://www.crimelibrary.com/serial4/criminalprofiling/index.html

Petherick, Wayne (2001) "How It Got Started and Hot It Is Used."
http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminology/criminalprofiling2/3.htm

Porter, Bruce (1983) "Mind Hunters," Psychology Today, 17:4 (April): 44 - 52.

Smith, Sharon S. and Roger W. Shuy (2002) "Forensic Psychologinguistics Using Language Analysis for Identifying and Assessing Offenders," FBI Law
Enforcement Bulletin, 71: 4 (April): 16 - 21.
http://www.fbi.gov/publications/leb/2002/april2002/april02leb.htm

Swanson, Charles R., Neil C. Chamelin, and Leonard Territo (2003) "Criminal in Criminal Investigation, 8th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill. See esp.
"Profiling," pp. 250 - 256, & "National Center for the Analysis of
Violent Crime," pp. 259 - 260.